Ecology: Concepts and Applications (2002) (edit title/settings)

Table of Contents
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4.3 Regulating Body Temperature 91
Balancing Heat Gain Against Heat Loss 91
Temperature Regulation by Plants 92
Temperature Regulation by Ectothermic Animals 94
Temperature Regulation by Endothermic Animals 96
Temperature Regulation by Thermogenic Plants 99
Concept 4.3 Review 101
4.4 Surviving Extreme Temperatures 101
Inactivity 101
Reducing Metabolic Rate 101
Hibernation by a Tropical Species 103
Concept 4.4 Review 103
Applications: Climatic Warming and the Local
Extinction of a Land Snail 103
H^pter 5 Water Relations 108
Concepts 110
5.1 Water Availability 110
Water Content of Air 110
Water Movement in Aquatic Environments 111
Water Movement Between Soils and Plants 112
Concept 5.1 Review 114
5.2 Water Regulation on Land 114
Water Acquisition by Animals 115
Water Acquisition by Plants 116
Water Conservation by Plants and Animals 118
Investigating the Evidence 5: Sample Size 119
Dissimilar Organisms with Similar Approaches
to Desert Life 122
Two Arthropods with Opposite Approaches to
Desert Life 122
Concept 5.2 Review 124
5.3 Water and Salt Balance in Aquatic
Environments 126
Marine Fish and Invertebrates 126
Freshwater Fish and Invertebrates 126
Concept 5.3 Review 128
Applications: Using Stable Isotopes to Study Water
Uptake by Plants 129
Stable Isotope Analysis 129
Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Plant Water
Sources 129
Bfipter O Energy and Nutrient
Relations 133
Concepts 134
6.1 Energy Sources 134
Photosynthesis 135
Heterotrophs 139
Chemosynthesis 144
Concept 6.1 Review 145
6.2 Energy Limitation 146
Photon Flux and Photosynthetic Response Curves 146
Food Density and Animal Functional Response 146
Concept 6.2 Review 148
6.3 Optimal Foraging Theory 148
Testing Optimal Foraging Theory 148
Optimal Foraging by Plants 150
Investigating the Evidence 6: Variation in Data 151
Concept 6.3 Review 152
Applications: Bioremediation—Using the Trophic
Diversity of Bacteria to Solve Environmental
Problems 152
Leaking Underground Storage Tanks 153
Cyanide and Nitrates in Mine Spoils 153
H&ter 7 Social Relations 157
Concepts 159
7.1 Mate Choice 160
Mate Choice and Sexual Selection in Guppies 160
Mate Choice Among Scorpionflies 164
Nonrandom Mating Among Wild Radish 167
Concept 7.1 Review 169
7.2 Sociality 169
Cooperative Breeders 170
Investigating the Evidence 7: Scatter Plots and the
Relationship Between Variables 172
Concept 7.2 Review 175
7.3 Eusociality 175
Eusocial Species 175
Evolution of Eusociality 177
Concept 7.3 Review 179
Applications: Behavioral Ecology and Conservation 179
Ti nbergen 's Framework 179
Environmental Enrichment and Development of
Behavior 179
Section 111
POPULATION ECOLOG ^, > V ^
<chapter O Population Genetics and Natural
Selection 184
Concepts 186
8.1 Variation Within Populations 187
Variation in Plant Populations 187
Variation in Animal Populations 190
Concept 8.1 Review 192
8.2 Hardy-Weinberg 193
Calculating Gene Frequencies 193
Concept 8.2 Review 195
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8.3 The Process of Natural Selection 195
Stabilizing Selection 195
Directional Selection 196
Disruptive Selection 197
Concept 8.3 Review 197
8.4 Evolution by Natural Selection 197
Evolution by Natural Selection and Genetic
Variation 197
Investigating the Evidence 8: Estimating
Heritability Using Regression Analysis 198
Adaptive Change in Colonizing Lizards 198
Rapid Adaptation by Soapberry Bugs to
New Host Plants 200
Concept 8.4 Review 202
8.5 Change Due to Chance 202
Evidence of Genetic Drift in Chihuahua
Spruce 202
Genetic Variation in Island Populations 203
Genetic Diversity and Butterfly Extinctions 204
Concept 8.5 Review 205
Applications: Estimating Genetic Variation in
Populations 205
Molecular Approaches to Genetic Variation 205
|(%apter " Population Distribution
and Abundance 210
Concepts 212
9.1 Distribution Limits 212
Kangaroo Distributions and Climate 212
A Tiger Beetle of Cold Climates 213
Distributions of Plants Along a Moisture-Temperature
Gradient 214
Distributions of Barnacles Along an Intertidal Exposure
Gradient 215
Concept 9.I Review 216
9.2 Patterns on Small Scales 216
Scale, Distributions, and Mechanisms 217
Distributions of Tropical Bee Colonies 217
Distributions of Desert Shrubs 218
Concept 9.2 Review 220
9.3 Patterns on Large Scales 220
Bird Populations Across North America 220
Investigating the Evidence 9: Clumped, Random,
and Regular Distributions 221
Plant Distributions Along Moisture Gradients 223
Concept 9.3 Review 224
9.4 Organism Size and Population Density 224
Animal Size and Population Density 224
Plant Size and Population Density 225
Concept 9.4 Review 226
Applications: Rarity and Vulnerability to
Extinction 226
Seven Forms of Rarity and One of Abundance 226
<(^aptcr 10 Population Dynamics 231
Concepts 233
10.1 Dispersal 233
Dispersal of Expanding Populations 233
Range Changes in Response to Climate Change 234
Dispersal in Response to Changing Food Supply 235
Dispersal in Rivers and Streams 236
Concept 10.J Review 237
10.2 Metapopulations 237
A Metapopulation of an Alpine Butterfly 237
Dispersal Within a Metapopulation of Lesser Kestrels 239
Concept 10.2 Review 239
10.3 Patterns of Survival 239
Estimating Patterns of Survival 240
High Survival Among the Young 240
Constant Rates of Survival 241
High Mortality Among the Young 241
Three Types of Survivorship Curves 243
Concept 10.3 Review 243
10.4 Age Distribution 243
Stable and Declining Tree Populations 244
A Dynamic Population in a Variable Climate 244
Concept 10.4 Review 245
10.5 Rates of Population Change 245
Estimating Rates for an Annual Plant 246
Estimating Rates When Generations Overlap 247
Concept 10.5 Review 249
Investigating the Evidence 10: Hypotheses and
Statistical Significance 249
Applications: Using Population Dynamics to Assess
the Impact of Pollutants 250
<copter 11 Population Growth 254
Concepts 255
11.1 Geometric and Exponential Population
Growth 255
Geometric Growth 256
Exponential Growth 257
Exponential Growth in Nature 257
Concept II .1 Review 259
11.2 Logistic Population Growth 259
Concept II .2 Review 261
11.3 Limits to Population Growth 261
Investigating the Evidence 11: Frequency of
Alternative Phenotypes in a Population 262
Environment and Birth and Death Among Galapagos
Finches 262
Concept II .3 Review 266
Applications: The Human Population 266
Distribution and Abundance 266
Population Dynamics 267
Population Growth 268
<(%aptcrl2 Life Histories 272
Concepts 273
12.1 Offspring Number Versus Size 274
Egg Size and Number in Fish 274
Seed Size and Number in Plants 276
Concept 12.1 Review 280
12.2 Adult Survival and Reproductive Allocation 280
Life History Variation Among Species 280
Life History Variation Within Species 281
Concept 12.2 Review 284
12.3 Life History Classification 284
/• and K Selection 284
Plant Life Histories 285
Investigating the Evidence 12: A Statistical Test for
Distribution Pattern 286
Opportunistic, Equilibrium, and Periodic Life
Histories 288
Reproductive Effort, Offspring Size, and Benefit-Cost
Ratios 290
Concept 12.3 Review 291
Applications: Using Life History Information
to Restore Riparian Forests 291
Section IV
INTERACTIONS
Hjgpter 1 3 Competition 298
Concepts 300
13.1 Intraspecific Competition 300
Intraspecific Competition Among Plants 300
Intraspecific Competition Among Planthoppers 301
Interference Competition Among Terrestrial Isopods 302
Concept 13.1 Review 302
13.2 Niches 302
The Feeding Niches of Galapagos Finches 303
The Habitat Niche of a Salt Marsh Grass 304
Concept 13.2 Review 305
13.3 Mathematical and Laboratory Models 305
Modeling Interspecific Competition 305
Laboratory Models of Competition 307
Concept 13.3 Review 309
13.4 Competition and Niches 309
Niches and Competition Among Plants 309
Niche Overlap and Competition Between Barnacles 310
Competition and the Habitat of a Salt Marsh Grass 311
Competition and the Niches of Small Rodents 311
Character Displacement 312
Investigating the Evidence 13: Field
Experiments 315
Evidence for Competition in Nature 316
Concept 13.4 Review 316
Applications: Competition Between Native and
Invasive Species 316
diopter I 4 Exploitative Interactions:
Predation, Herbivory,
Parasitism, and Disease 320
Concepts 321
14.1 Complex Interactions 321
Parasites and Pathogens That Manipulate Host
Behavior 322
The Entangling of Exploitation with Competition 324
Concept 14.1 Review 325
14.2 Exploitation and Abundance 325
A Herbivorous Stream Insect and Its Algal Food 325
An Introduced Cactus and a Herbivorous Moth 327
A Pathogenic Parasite, a Predator, and Its Prey 328
Investigating the Evidence 14: Standard Error
of the Mean 330
Concept 14.2 Review 330
14.3 Dynamics 330
Cycles of Abundance in Snowshoe Hares and Their
Predators 331
Experimental Test of Food and Predation Impacts 333
Population Cycles in Mathematical and Laboratory
Models 334
Concept 14.3 Review 336
14.4 Refuges 337
Refuges and Host Persistence in Laboratory and
Mathematical Models 337
Exploited Organisms and Their Wide Variety of
"Refuges" 338
Concept 14.4 Review 342
Applications: Using Predators to Control a Parasite 343
|Ke$»ter 1 vS Mutualism 347
Concepts 349
15.1 Plant Mutualisms 349
Plant Performance and Mycorrhizal Fungi 349
Ants and Swollen Thorn Acacias 352
A Temperate Plant Protection Mutualism 355
Concept 15.1 Review 356
15.2 Coral Mutualisms 357
Zooxanthellae and Corals 357
A Coral Protection Mutualism 358
Concept 15.2 Review 359
15.3 Evolution of Mutualism 359
Investigating the Evidence 15: Confidence
Intervals 360
Facultative Ant-Plant Protection Mutualisms 362
Concept 15.3 Review 363
Applications: Mutualism and Humans 363
The Honeyguide 363
Guiding Behavior 364
Section V
COMMUNITIES AND Q. / EM
^^pter 10 Species Abundance and
Diversity 370
Concepts 372
16.1 Species Abundance 372
The Lognormal Distribution 372
Concept 16.1 Review 373
16.2 Species Diversity 373
A Quantitative Index of Species Diversity 374
Rank-Abundance Curves 374
Investigating the Evidence 16: Estimating the
Number of Species in Communities 376
Concept 16.2 Review 377
16.3 Environmental Complexity 377
Forest Complexity and Bird Species Diversity 377
Niches, Heterogeneity, and the Diversity of Algae and
Plants 378
The Niches of Algae and Terrestrial Plants 378
Complexity in Plant Environments 379
Soil and Topographic Heterogeneity and the Diversity of
Tropical Forest Trees 379
Algal and Plant Species Diversity and Increased Nutrient
Availability 380
Nitrogen Enrichment and Ectomycorrhizal Fungus
Diversity 380
Concept 16.3 Re view 382
16.4 Disturbance and Diversity 382
The Nature of Equilibrium 382
The Nature and Sources of Disturbance 382
The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis 383
Disturbance and Diversity in the lntertidal Zone 383
Disturbance and Diversity in Temperate
Grasslands 384
Concept 16.4 Review 385
Applications: Disturbance by Humans 385
Human Disturbance: An Ancient Feature of the
Biosphere 386
Disturbance by Humans and the Diversity of Chalk
Grasslands 387
^|pter 17 Species Interactions and
Community Structure 391
Concepts 392
17.1 Community Webs 392
Detailed Food Webs Reveal Great Complexity 392
Strong Interactions and Food Web Structure 394
Concept 17.1 Review 394
17.2 Keystone Species 394
Food Web Structure and Species Diversity 395
Experimental Removal of Sea Stars 396
Snail Effects on Algal Diversity 397
Fish as Keystone Species in River Food Webs 400
Investigating the Evidence 17: Using Confidence
Intervals to Compare Populations 401
Concept 17.2 Review 403
17.3 Exotic Predators 403
Introduced Fish: Predators That Simplify Aquatic Food
Webs 403
Concept 17.3 Review 405
17A Mutualistic Keystones 405
A Cleaner Fish as a Keystone Species 405
Seed Dispersal Mutualists as Keystone Species 405
Concept 17.4 Review 406
Applications: Humans as Keystone Species 406
The Empty Forest: Hunters and Tropical Rain Forest
Animal Communities 406
Ants and Agriculture: Keystone Predators for Pest
Control 407
ipter 18 Primary Production and
Energy Flow 411
Concepts 413
18.1 Patterns of Terrestrial Primary Production 413
Actual Evapotranspiration and Terrestrial Primary
Production 413
Soil Fertility and Terrestrial Primary Production 414
Concept 18.1 Review 415
18.2 Patterns of Aquatic Primary Production 415
Patterns and Models 416
Whole Lake Experiments on Primary
Production 416
Global Patterns of Marine Primary Production 417
Concept 18.2 Review 418
18.3 Consumer Influences 418
Piscivores, Planktivores, and Lake Primary
Production 419
Grazing by Large Mammals and Primary Production
on the Serengeti 421
Investigating the Evidence 18: Comparing Two
Populations with the r-Test 422
Concept 18.3 Review 423
18.4 Trophic Levels 424
A Trophic Dynamic View of Ecosystems 424
Energy Flow in a Temperate Deciduous
Forest 424
Concept 18.4 Review 426
Applications: Using Stable Isotope Analysis to Trace
Energy Flow Through Ecosystems 426
Trophic Levels of Tropical River Fish 426
Using Stable Isotopes to Identify Sources of Energy in a
Salt Marsh 427
Food Habits of Prehistoric Human Populations 428
19 Nutrient Cycling and
Retention 432
The Phosphorus Cycle 433
The Nitrogen Cycle 434
The Carbon Cycle 435
Concepts 436
19.1 Rates of Decomposition 436
Decomposition in Two Mediterranean Woodland
Ecosystems 436
Decomposition in Two Temperate Forest
Ecosystems 437
Decomposition in Aquatic Ecosystems 439
Investigating the Evidence 19: Assumptions for
Statistical Tests 441
Concept 19.J Review 442
19.2 Organisms and Nutrients 442
Nutrient Cycling in Streams 442
Animals and Nutrient Cycling in Terrestrial
Ecosystems 444
Plants and the Nutrient Dynamics of Ecosystems 445
Concept 19.2 Review 447
19.3 Disturbance and Nutrients 447
Disturbance and Nutrient Loss from the Hubbard Brook
Experimental Forest 447
Flooding and Nutrient Export by Streams 448
Concept 19.3 Review 449
Applications: Altering Aquatic and Terrestrial
Ecosystems 449
■ppter 20 Succession and Stability 454
Concepts 456
20.1 Community Changes During Succession 456
Primary Succession at Glacier Bay 456
Secondary Succession in Temperate Forests 457
Succession in Rocky Intertidal Communities 458
Succession in Stream Communities 459
Concept 20.1 Review 460
20.2 Ecosystem Changes During Succession 460
Ecosystem Changes at Glacier Bay 460
Four Million Years of Ecosystem Change 461
Recovery of Nutrient Retention Following
Disturbance 463
Succession and Stream Ecosystem Properties 464
Concept 20.2 Review 465
20.3 Mechanisms of Succession 465
Successional Mechanisms in the Rocky
Intertidal Zone 467
Successional Mechanisms in Forests 468
Concept 20.3 Review 469
20.4 Community and Ecosystem Stability 469
Some Definitions 470
Lessons from the Park Grass Experiment 470
Replicate Disturbances and Desert Stream Stability 471
Investigating the Evidence 20: Variation Around
the Median 472
Concept 20.4 Review 474
Applications: Using Repeat Photography to Detect
Long-Term Change 474
Section VI
LARGE-SCALE ECOLOGY
• ter 21 Landscape Ecology 481
Concepts 483
21.1 Landscape Structure 483
The Structure of Six Landscapes in Ohio 483
The Fractal Geometry of Landscapes 485
Concept 21.1 Review 486
21.2 Landscape Processes 487
Landscape Structure and the Dispersal of Mammals 487
Habitat Patch Size and Isolation and the Density of
Butterfly Populations 488
Habitat Corridors and Movement of Organisms 489
Landscape Position and Lake Chemistry 491
Investigating the Evidence 21: Comparison of Two
Samples Using a Rank Sum Test 492
Concept 21.2 Review 493
21.3 Origins of Landscape Structure and Change 493
Geological Processes, Climate, and Landscape
Structure 493
Organisms and Landscape Structure 495
Fire and the Structure of a Mediterranean
Landscape 499
Concept 21.3 Review 500
Applications: Restoring a Riverine Landscape 500
Riverine Restoration: The Kissimmee River 500
^Hpter 22 Geographic Ecology 506
Concepts 508
22.1 Area, Isolation, and Species Richness 508
Sampling Area and Number of Species 508
Island Area and Species Richness 508
Island Isolation and Species Richness 509
Concept 22.1 Review 511
22.2 The Equilibrium Model of Island
Biogeography 511
Species Turnover on Islands 513
Experimental Island Biogeography 514
Colonization of New Islands by Plants 515
Manipulating Island Area 516
Island Biogeography Update 516
Concept 22.2 Review 516
22.3 Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 517
Area and Latitudinal Gradients in Species Richness 518
Continental Area and Species Richness 519
Concept 22.3 Review 520
22.4 Historical and Regional Influences 520
Exceptional Patterns of Diversity 520
Investigating the Evidence 22: Sample Size
Revisited 521
Historical and Regional Explanations 522
Concept 22.4 Review 524
Applications: Global Positioning Systems, Remote
Sensing, and Geographic Information
Systems 524
Global Positioning Systems 524
Remote Sensing 524
Geographic Information Systems 526
3'ter 23 Global Ecology 530
The Atmospheric Envelope and the Greenhouse Earth 531
Concepts 532
23.1 A Global System 533
The Historical Thread 533
El Nino and La Nina 534
El Nino and Marine Populations 534
El Nino and the Great Salt Lake 537
El Nino and Terrestrial Populations in Australia 538
Concept 23.1 Review 539
23.2 Human Activity and the Global Nitrogen
Cycle 539
Concept 23.2 Review 540
23.3 Changes in Land Cover 540
Tropical Deforestation 540
Investigating the Evidence 23: Discovering What's
Been Discovered 544
Concept 23.3 Review 544
23.4 Human Influence on Atmospheric
Composition 545
Depletion and Recovery of the Ozone Layer 548
The Future 548
Concept 23.4 Review 549
Applications: Cooperative Research Networks
for Global Ecology 549
Appendix A Statistical Tables 554
Appendix B Answers to Concept Review
Questions 558
Appendix C Answers to Critiquing the Evidence 567
Glossary 569
References 578